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Original language
17.07.2025
Unconditional Transport Accessibility in Urban Agglomerations: Between Urbanist Utopia and Economic Reality
Preamble
Urbanization is a term that could be listed among the most important words of the 20th century. The rapid growth of urban populations in BRICS countries fr om the early 20th century to the present reflects global shihs in economy, social structure, and demography. Each of these countries has experienced a long and distinct path of urbanization, which has been both a cause and a consequence of deep societal transformations. At the beginning of the 20th century, the urban population share ranged from 5 % in China to 18 % in South Africa. Let us leave aside the historical prerequisites and political processes and focus solely on the entry point and cur- rent indicators for each group member.
In China, urbanization accelerated in the 1950s, and by 2022, over 60 % of the population — more than 900 million people — lived in cities. According to a study by the World Bank, the peak of urbanization has passed, and future urban growth will
concentrate around major megacities and new urban clusters such as the Yangtze River Delta and the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region1.
In modern India, more than 35 % of the population — about 500 million peo- ple — live in cities. Urban population density in India exceeds the global average, primarily due to Delhi and Mumbai. Urbanization is expected to continue, with demographic shihs and GDP growth concentrating more people around the key metropolitan areas like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore2.
In South Africa, approximately 40 million people, or more than 70 % of the population, reside in urban areas. South African cities have lower population den- sity compared to megacities in countries like India and China. Population density in South African megacities ranges from 1,310 to 3,040 people per square kilome- ter, due to large urban footprints and significant suburban zones in Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban. These agglomerations are likely to grow further through internal migration3.
Brazil has the highest urbanization rate among BRICS countries: over 86 % of the population, i. e. about 180 million people, live in cities. Urbanization rates are expected to stabilize, reaching around 90 % by 2040. Major urban agglomerations such as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro will remain the key centers, and the govern- ment is currently developing targeted programs to improve urban quality of life4.
In Russia, industrialization and subsequent urbanization began in the 1920s. By 2022, 75 % of Russians — approximately 110 million people — lived in cities. Nearly 70 % of Russian cities have populations under 100,000, and the future of a third of these cities remains uncertain, heavily dependent on anchor enterprises and state investment in social services. By 2040, large cities are expected to grow due to internal migration from smaller towns and labor migration5.
Urbanization will thus remain the key development factor for BRICS coun- tries in the coming decades, creating both opportunities and challenges for governments and societies. Common and specific urbanization-related issues include: overpopulation and housing challenges, including rising costs and reduced affordability; inadequate urban infrastructure that lags behind popula- tion growth; environmental issues driven by increased consumption and waste; and management difficulties in urban planning, all of which exacerbate social
1 Wahba Tadros, Sameh Naguib; Wellenstein,Anna; Das,Maitreyi B; Palmarini,Nic; D'Aoust,Olivia Severine; Singh,Gayatri; Restrepo Cadavid,Paula; Goga,Soraya; Terraza,Horacio Cristian; Lakovits,Carina; Baeumler,Axel E. N.; Gapihan,Anne Treylane.
2 Ibid
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Institute for Urban Economics. The Economy of Russian Cities and Urban Agglomerations. Issue 5: Major Urban Agglomerations in the Global Economy. Moscow: Institute for Urban Economics Foundation, 2020.
inequality. The concept of unconditional transport accessibility is a vital tool for addressing these urbanization challenges. It promotes the creation of cities with equal opportunities for all residents, reduced environmental impact, and improved quality of life.
Hypothesis
The principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility (UTA) emerged within the broader concepts of “Transport Accessibility” and “Unconditional Transport Accessibility”6. It has become widespread in urban mobility research and practice, especially alongside the ideas of “sustainable transport” and “smart cities”. One of the pioneers in developing this concept was American scholar David Banister. While still relatively unknown in Russian historiography, the concept warrants deeper exploration.
Banister and his colleagues studied how urban structure and transport plan- ning affect access to essential services such as employment, education, health- care, and recreation. The core idea is that transportation systems should guarantee access to key services and destinations for all citizens, regardless of location, income, or physical ability.
The UTA concept has since been further developed by researchers and urban planning professionals. Their findings highlight that transport accessibility is cru- cial for achieving social equity and urban sustainability.
The principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility (UTA) means that every city resident is to be able to access essential services and destinations without barriers, no matter wh ere they live. This principle aims to provide equal opportunities to all citizens, including the elderly, people with disabilities, chil- dren, and youth.
Key components of UTA include:
1. Access to public transport: public transport should be accessible for every citi- zen offering regular and convenient connections across all districts.
2. Comfort and safety of pedestrian areas: well-maintained sidewalks, lighting, and fencing.
3. Interactive maps and navigation tools to help residents plan routes and navi- gate cities easily.
4. Environmental sustainability: promotion of environmentally friendly trans- portation options (electric buses, trams, and personal mobility devices).
Some sources also emphasize cycling infrastructure, including dedicated bike lanes and parking.
6 Institute for Urban Economics. The Economy of Russian Cities and Urban Agglomerations. Issue 5: Major Urban Agglomerations in the Global Economy. Moscow: Institute for Urban Economics Foundation, 2020.
However, the ideal of Unconditional Transport Accessibility ohen clashes with the reality of urban agglomerations, which face serious resource constraints:
1. Financial: high costs of maintaining and upgrading roads, junctions, and pub- lic transport.
2. Spatial: difficult topography, existing and future urban development, and lim- ited physical space to build or expand roads, bridges, junctions, parking lots, and other facilities.
3. Technical: outdated infrastructure, compatibility issues with modern systems (especially in tram and trolley networks), and integration challenges.
4. Political and administrative: barriers to transport between municipalities within one agglomeration, lack of subsidies to carriers or municipalities and regions to build road facilities or modernize public transport.
5. Social burden: ensuring access to social infrastructure, support for subsidized passengers, need for barrier-free, safe environments, public attitudes toward transit, and fare policy.
6. Environmental pressure: air and noise pollution (likely the least influential of the above).
Most Unconditional Transport Accessibility barriers stem fr om a fundamen- tal question: Is public transport a business with social obligations or a municipal responsibility?
BRICS countries use hybrid models. In general terms: municipalities retain regulatory roles, municipal/government companies in China/ state corporations in India build and operate infrastructure. Metro and rail systems are state-managed; bus transport varies across public and private sectors. In many cases, public-private partnerships are used to develop large-scale projects like metro lines or fleet upgrades.
Public transport can function as a business, especially wh ere operators pursue profitability through improved service and customer attraction. Yet public transit plays a crucial social role: granting access to jobs, schools, healthcare, and other essential services for all categories of citizens, especially for those without private vehicles. Profitability is ohen limited by the need to serve low-income areas and provide subsidies.
Therefore, municipalities consider transit as a core urban function providing access to essential services. Local governments regulate fares, plan routes, and integrate modes. Many routes are unprofitable, requiring subsidies to maintain ser- vice, modernize fleets, build infrastructure, and cover losses.
However, what we are witnessing is a classic case of nationalized losses and privatized profits: infrastructure — roads, interchanges, bus stops, and informa- tion systems — is maintained and funded by the municipality. A portion of pub- lic transport is also municipally operated (through municipal unitary enterprises of city transport), which includes metro systems, tram and trolleybus depots, and certain bus routes. Meanwhile, commercial companies reap the profits. Municipal
transportation companies consistently report financial losses every year (e. g., in Yekaterinburg7 and Moscow8), while competition for lucrative commercial routes is fierce, and, according to media reports, sometimes even criminalized.
The profitability of commercial routes is achieved through various means that ohen contradict not only the principles of Unconditional Transport Accessi- bility but also public road safety norms, service quality standards, and proper fare accountability. These include poorly maintained vehicles and inadequately trained drivers, extended service intervals during low-demand hours, and violations of passenger transport regulations.
Why, then, does not the municipality expand its regulatory authority or cov- erage in the public transportation sector? Such a decision would, in the long term, allow for more effective management of the resource limitations to implement the principles of Unconditional Transport Accessibility identified earlier:
1. financial: high costs of road, interchange, and public transport maintenance and modernization would remain but could be offset by revenue from com- mercially viable routes;
2. spatial limitations: the practice of expropriating land for road construction could be more actively pursued if municipalities had the economic incentive or a developer-partner focused on improving transport accessibility;
3. technical limitations: these are easier to address within unification and medi- um-term municipal planning framework than across several independent car- riers;
4. political and administrative resources could be focused on a single objective based on shared principles, and centralization would simplify appeals to fed- eral authorities for subsidies on road network and public transport develop- ment;
5. the city would gain flexibility in managing social obligations, including through comprehensive territorial development planning, attracting investors among developers for transport projects, allocating land for institutions and residents, and flexibly subsidizing fares for specific population categories (e. g., young municipal professionals);
6. environmental burdens could be significantly reduced through prioritizing electric transport, lowering carbon emissions, and minimizing the cost of vehicle disposal and maintenance for both public and private fleets.
Thus, implementing the principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility requires a comprehensive approach and engagement from all the stakeholders: authorities, the business community, non-governmental organizations, and resi-
7 Report of the Head of Yekaterinburg on the Results of His Activities and the Activities of the City Administration, Including Responses to Questions Raised by the Yekaterinburg City Duma for 2023. Yekaterinburg, 2024.
8 Moscow Transport Complex: 2022 Performance Report. Moscow, 2023.
dents themselves. One way to realize the declared goals of Unconditional Transport Accessibility could be the transfer of transport operations to municipal manage- ment or the establishment of a system with stronger municipal oversight of public transportation.
Economic and Social Effects. When evaluating social outcomes, it is crucial to consider the cultural characteristics of specific societies. For instance, the expec- tations of residents in Russia, India, China, and Brazil do not align with the typical American approach to transport accessibility, due to distinct historical and cultural factors. What may work for atomized nuclear households in endless American suburbs does not meet the needs and expectations of those shaped by socially- oriented or even paternalistic states, or of the bearers of traditional cultural code representing the third or fourth generation of residents (given the pace of urban- ization in BRICS countries).
The urban transportation systems in agglomerations may shih from being narrowly evaluated based on profit and loss to being recognized as a category of investment for the economic development of agglomerations.
General Conclusions and Expected Outcomes.
Urban transport accessibility in BRICS megacities faces shared challenges: road congestion, insufficient public transport, and environmental consequences. However, each country is developing its own strategy to address these issues, including expanding transport networks, integrating digital technologies, and pro- moting environmentally friendly transportation.
The concept of Unconditional Transport Accessibility directly addresses many of the urbanization challenges faced by BRICS countries. A robust public transport system aligned with UTA principles can reduce private car use, ease congestion, and improve environmental conditions. Ensuring access to transport for all resi- dents, regardless of income, will make cities fairer and more inclusive. The use of green transport modes, such as electric buses and trams, will reduce carbon emis- sions and improve urban air quality.
The principles of Unconditional Transport Accessibility demand a compre- hensive approach to urban infrastructure planning for more rational and socially equitable resource use. This is what makes expanding municipal authority over transport infrastructure such an attractive and promising direction.
Urbanization is a term that could be listed among the most important words of the 20th century. The rapid growth of urban populations in BRICS countries fr om the early 20th century to the present reflects global shihs in economy, social structure, and demography. Each of these countries has experienced a long and distinct path of urbanization, which has been both a cause and a consequence of deep societal transformations. At the beginning of the 20th century, the urban population share ranged from 5 % in China to 18 % in South Africa. Let us leave aside the historical prerequisites and political processes and focus solely on the entry point and cur- rent indicators for each group member.
In China, urbanization accelerated in the 1950s, and by 2022, over 60 % of the population — more than 900 million people — lived in cities. According to a study by the World Bank, the peak of urbanization has passed, and future urban growth will
concentrate around major megacities and new urban clusters such as the Yangtze River Delta and the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region1.
In modern India, more than 35 % of the population — about 500 million peo- ple — live in cities. Urban population density in India exceeds the global average, primarily due to Delhi and Mumbai. Urbanization is expected to continue, with demographic shihs and GDP growth concentrating more people around the key metropolitan areas like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore2.
In South Africa, approximately 40 million people, or more than 70 % of the population, reside in urban areas. South African cities have lower population den- sity compared to megacities in countries like India and China. Population density in South African megacities ranges from 1,310 to 3,040 people per square kilome- ter, due to large urban footprints and significant suburban zones in Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban. These agglomerations are likely to grow further through internal migration3.
Brazil has the highest urbanization rate among BRICS countries: over 86 % of the population, i. e. about 180 million people, live in cities. Urbanization rates are expected to stabilize, reaching around 90 % by 2040. Major urban agglomerations such as São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro will remain the key centers, and the govern- ment is currently developing targeted programs to improve urban quality of life4.
In Russia, industrialization and subsequent urbanization began in the 1920s. By 2022, 75 % of Russians — approximately 110 million people — lived in cities. Nearly 70 % of Russian cities have populations under 100,000, and the future of a third of these cities remains uncertain, heavily dependent on anchor enterprises and state investment in social services. By 2040, large cities are expected to grow due to internal migration from smaller towns and labor migration5.
Urbanization will thus remain the key development factor for BRICS coun- tries in the coming decades, creating both opportunities and challenges for governments and societies. Common and specific urbanization-related issues include: overpopulation and housing challenges, including rising costs and reduced affordability; inadequate urban infrastructure that lags behind popula- tion growth; environmental issues driven by increased consumption and waste; and management difficulties in urban planning, all of which exacerbate social
1 Wahba Tadros, Sameh Naguib; Wellenstein,Anna; Das,Maitreyi B; Palmarini,Nic; D'Aoust,Olivia Severine; Singh,Gayatri; Restrepo Cadavid,Paula; Goga,Soraya; Terraza,Horacio Cristian; Lakovits,Carina; Baeumler,Axel E. N.; Gapihan,Anne Treylane.
2 Ibid
3 Ibid
4 Ibid
5 Institute for Urban Economics. The Economy of Russian Cities and Urban Agglomerations. Issue 5: Major Urban Agglomerations in the Global Economy. Moscow: Institute for Urban Economics Foundation, 2020.
inequality. The concept of unconditional transport accessibility is a vital tool for addressing these urbanization challenges. It promotes the creation of cities with equal opportunities for all residents, reduced environmental impact, and improved quality of life.
Hypothesis
The principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility (UTA) emerged within the broader concepts of “Transport Accessibility” and “Unconditional Transport Accessibility”6. It has become widespread in urban mobility research and practice, especially alongside the ideas of “sustainable transport” and “smart cities”. One of the pioneers in developing this concept was American scholar David Banister. While still relatively unknown in Russian historiography, the concept warrants deeper exploration.
Banister and his colleagues studied how urban structure and transport plan- ning affect access to essential services such as employment, education, health- care, and recreation. The core idea is that transportation systems should guarantee access to key services and destinations for all citizens, regardless of location, income, or physical ability.
The UTA concept has since been further developed by researchers and urban planning professionals. Their findings highlight that transport accessibility is cru- cial for achieving social equity and urban sustainability.
The principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility (UTA) means that every city resident is to be able to access essential services and destinations without barriers, no matter wh ere they live. This principle aims to provide equal opportunities to all citizens, including the elderly, people with disabilities, chil- dren, and youth.
Key components of UTA include:
1. Access to public transport: public transport should be accessible for every citi- zen offering regular and convenient connections across all districts.
2. Comfort and safety of pedestrian areas: well-maintained sidewalks, lighting, and fencing.
3. Interactive maps and navigation tools to help residents plan routes and navi- gate cities easily.
4. Environmental sustainability: promotion of environmentally friendly trans- portation options (electric buses, trams, and personal mobility devices).
Some sources also emphasize cycling infrastructure, including dedicated bike lanes and parking.
6 Institute for Urban Economics. The Economy of Russian Cities and Urban Agglomerations. Issue 5: Major Urban Agglomerations in the Global Economy. Moscow: Institute for Urban Economics Foundation, 2020.
However, the ideal of Unconditional Transport Accessibility ohen clashes with the reality of urban agglomerations, which face serious resource constraints:
1. Financial: high costs of maintaining and upgrading roads, junctions, and pub- lic transport.
2. Spatial: difficult topography, existing and future urban development, and lim- ited physical space to build or expand roads, bridges, junctions, parking lots, and other facilities.
3. Technical: outdated infrastructure, compatibility issues with modern systems (especially in tram and trolley networks), and integration challenges.
4. Political and administrative: barriers to transport between municipalities within one agglomeration, lack of subsidies to carriers or municipalities and regions to build road facilities or modernize public transport.
5. Social burden: ensuring access to social infrastructure, support for subsidized passengers, need for barrier-free, safe environments, public attitudes toward transit, and fare policy.
6. Environmental pressure: air and noise pollution (likely the least influential of the above).
Most Unconditional Transport Accessibility barriers stem fr om a fundamen- tal question: Is public transport a business with social obligations or a municipal responsibility?
BRICS countries use hybrid models. In general terms: municipalities retain regulatory roles, municipal/government companies in China/ state corporations in India build and operate infrastructure. Metro and rail systems are state-managed; bus transport varies across public and private sectors. In many cases, public-private partnerships are used to develop large-scale projects like metro lines or fleet upgrades.
Public transport can function as a business, especially wh ere operators pursue profitability through improved service and customer attraction. Yet public transit plays a crucial social role: granting access to jobs, schools, healthcare, and other essential services for all categories of citizens, especially for those without private vehicles. Profitability is ohen limited by the need to serve low-income areas and provide subsidies.
Therefore, municipalities consider transit as a core urban function providing access to essential services. Local governments regulate fares, plan routes, and integrate modes. Many routes are unprofitable, requiring subsidies to maintain ser- vice, modernize fleets, build infrastructure, and cover losses.
However, what we are witnessing is a classic case of nationalized losses and privatized profits: infrastructure — roads, interchanges, bus stops, and informa- tion systems — is maintained and funded by the municipality. A portion of pub- lic transport is also municipally operated (through municipal unitary enterprises of city transport), which includes metro systems, tram and trolleybus depots, and certain bus routes. Meanwhile, commercial companies reap the profits. Municipal
transportation companies consistently report financial losses every year (e. g., in Yekaterinburg7 and Moscow8), while competition for lucrative commercial routes is fierce, and, according to media reports, sometimes even criminalized.
The profitability of commercial routes is achieved through various means that ohen contradict not only the principles of Unconditional Transport Accessi- bility but also public road safety norms, service quality standards, and proper fare accountability. These include poorly maintained vehicles and inadequately trained drivers, extended service intervals during low-demand hours, and violations of passenger transport regulations.
Why, then, does not the municipality expand its regulatory authority or cov- erage in the public transportation sector? Such a decision would, in the long term, allow for more effective management of the resource limitations to implement the principles of Unconditional Transport Accessibility identified earlier:
1. financial: high costs of road, interchange, and public transport maintenance and modernization would remain but could be offset by revenue from com- mercially viable routes;
2. spatial limitations: the practice of expropriating land for road construction could be more actively pursued if municipalities had the economic incentive or a developer-partner focused on improving transport accessibility;
3. technical limitations: these are easier to address within unification and medi- um-term municipal planning framework than across several independent car- riers;
4. political and administrative resources could be focused on a single objective based on shared principles, and centralization would simplify appeals to fed- eral authorities for subsidies on road network and public transport develop- ment;
5. the city would gain flexibility in managing social obligations, including through comprehensive territorial development planning, attracting investors among developers for transport projects, allocating land for institutions and residents, and flexibly subsidizing fares for specific population categories (e. g., young municipal professionals);
6. environmental burdens could be significantly reduced through prioritizing electric transport, lowering carbon emissions, and minimizing the cost of vehicle disposal and maintenance for both public and private fleets.
Thus, implementing the principle of Unconditional Transport Accessibility requires a comprehensive approach and engagement from all the stakeholders: authorities, the business community, non-governmental organizations, and resi-
7 Report of the Head of Yekaterinburg on the Results of His Activities and the Activities of the City Administration, Including Responses to Questions Raised by the Yekaterinburg City Duma for 2023. Yekaterinburg, 2024.
8 Moscow Transport Complex: 2022 Performance Report. Moscow, 2023.
dents themselves. One way to realize the declared goals of Unconditional Transport Accessibility could be the transfer of transport operations to municipal manage- ment or the establishment of a system with stronger municipal oversight of public transportation.
Economic and Social Effects. When evaluating social outcomes, it is crucial to consider the cultural characteristics of specific societies. For instance, the expec- tations of residents in Russia, India, China, and Brazil do not align with the typical American approach to transport accessibility, due to distinct historical and cultural factors. What may work for atomized nuclear households in endless American suburbs does not meet the needs and expectations of those shaped by socially- oriented or even paternalistic states, or of the bearers of traditional cultural code representing the third or fourth generation of residents (given the pace of urban- ization in BRICS countries).
The urban transportation systems in agglomerations may shih from being narrowly evaluated based on profit and loss to being recognized as a category of investment for the economic development of agglomerations.
General Conclusions and Expected Outcomes.
Urban transport accessibility in BRICS megacities faces shared challenges: road congestion, insufficient public transport, and environmental consequences. However, each country is developing its own strategy to address these issues, including expanding transport networks, integrating digital technologies, and pro- moting environmentally friendly transportation.
The concept of Unconditional Transport Accessibility directly addresses many of the urbanization challenges faced by BRICS countries. A robust public transport system aligned with UTA principles can reduce private car use, ease congestion, and improve environmental conditions. Ensuring access to transport for all resi- dents, regardless of income, will make cities fairer and more inclusive. The use of green transport modes, such as electric buses and trams, will reduce carbon emis- sions and improve urban air quality.
The principles of Unconditional Transport Accessibility demand a compre- hensive approach to urban infrastructure planning for more rational and socially equitable resource use. This is what makes expanding municipal authority over transport infrastructure such an attractive and promising direction.
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